Lamentations

Lamentations front

Introduction to Lamentations

Part 1: General Introduction

Outline of the Book of Lamentations

1. First lament: Yahweh and his people have abandoned Jerusalem (1:1–22)
2. Second lament: Yahweh was angry with Jerusalem and caused it to be destroyed (2:1–22)
3. Third lament (3:1-66)
   • The people grieve (3:1–20)
   • Yahweh comforts those who turn back to him (3:21–39)
   • Judah is learning to return to Yahweh (3:40–54)
   • Judah cries out to be avenged of its enemies (3:55–66)
4. Fourth lament: The terrors of the siege of Jerusalem (4:1-4:22)
   • The people’s sin caused Jerusalem to be punished (4:1–20)
   • Their being punished satisfied Yahweh’s wrath for their sin (4:21–22a)
   • Edom will be punished also (4:22b)
5. Fifth lament: The broken nation cries out to Yahweh (5:1–22)

What is the Book of Lamentations about?

The Babylonians captured the city of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. In the Book of Lamentations, the writer grieves over Jerusalem being destroyed.

The Book of Lamentations is organized into five poems. The writer describes how God allowed Jerusalem to be destroyed because the people sinned against him. However, the writer also states that God is always loving and faithful to his people. (See: sin, sinful, sinner, sinning and faith)

Who wrote the Book of Lamentations?

The text of Lamentations does not give the name of the author. The traditional view is that Jeremiah wrote it. The writer seems to have personally seen Jerusalem destroyed. The serious and grieving words in the Book of Jeremiah are similar to those in the Book of Lamentations.

How should the title of this book be translated?

Translators may use the traditional title of “Lamentations.” Or they may call the book “Poems of Sadness.” If translators want to take the view that the prophet Jeremiah wrote this book, they might decide on a title such as “The Sad Sayings of Jeremiah.” (See: How to Translate Names)

Part 2: Important Religious and Cultural Concepts

Did God abandon Israel?

The author of Lamentations often speaks of God abandoning Israel. But this did not mean that God had completely given up on Israel. He rejected Israel for a period of time as the special place where he would be present. However, God remained faithful to what he promised Israel in his covenant.

While it was common in the ancient Near East to think that a god might leave its city, it usually did so because it was too weak to defend the city. In Lamentations, Yahweh abandons Jerusalem because the people sinned against him, not because he was too weak to defend the city. (See: god, false god, goddess, idol, idolater, idolatrous, idolatry)

What is a funeral song?

People groups commonly sing songs after someone dies or during a funeral. Depending on the culture, these songs can sound either happy or sad. The Book of Lamentations is like a sad song, called a “lament,” sung at a funeral. Some scholars think the rhythm of the laments in Hebrew makes them sound slow like a funeral procession.

Part 3: Important Translation Issues

What style of writing is Lamentations?

Lamentations is a collection of five poems. The Jewish exiles living in captivity in Babylon may have sung or chanted these laments. The Jews who remained in Jerusalem after the Babylonians conquered it may also have sung them. In Chapters 1, 2, and 4, each line of the poem begins with a different Hebrew letter, in the order of the Hebrew alphabet. The third chapter repeats three lines starting with the same letter of the Hebrew alphabet. The next three lines begin with next letter in the Hebrew alphabet.

Who are the woman and the man in Lamentations?

The author uses the image of an abandoned woman and a persecuted man to represent Judah and Jerusalem. He uses this type of personification to help readers understand the pain and sorrow. (See: Personification)

Lamentations 1

Lamentations 1 General Notes

Structure and formatting

Judah destroyed for her sin

Judah used to be great, but is now a slave. The temple is stripped of all its valuables. (See: sin, sinful, sinner, sinning and temple, house, house of God)

Lamentations 1:1

Various poetic forms are used throughout this book. (See Poetry and Parallelism and Metaphor)

This speaks of the city of Jerusalem being empty, as if it were a woman who was sitting alone. Alternate translation: “is now empty” (See: Metaphor)

The writer of Lamentations writes about the city of Jerusalem as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

This speaks of Jerusalem as being without protection, as if it were a vulnerable widow. (See: Simile)

This speaks of Jerusalem being honored as if it were a princess. Alternate translation: “She was like a princess among the nations” (See: Metaphor)

“forced to become a slave.” If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “but she is now a slave” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 1:2

The author describes Jerusalem as having emotions like a human being. The city also stands for her inhabitants. Alternate translation: “Those who live in her weep and wail … and their tears cover their cheeks” (See: Personification and Metonymy)

The word “wails” refers to the sounds that a person makes when they “weep” loudly. Alternate translation: “weeps loudly” (See: Doublet)

This speaks of the people groups that had been faithful to Jerusalem betraying Jerusalem, as if the people groups were Jerusalem’s lovers and friends. (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 1:3

In these verses, Jerusalem and Judah are spoken of as if they were women. (See: Personification)

Alternate translation: “After suffering poverty and affliction”

Here Judah refers to its inhabitants. Alternate translation: “the people of Judah have gone into exile” or “the people of Judah have been taken into a foreign land” (See: Metonymy)

Here the kingdom of Judah is described as a woman. “She” also stands for the citizens of Judah. Alternate translation: “Her people live … they find” (See: Personification and Metonymy)

Alternate translation: “does not find rest” or “is always afraid”

This speaks of the people of Judah being captured by their enemies as if they were a woman who was captured by those pursuing her. (See: Personification)

Alternate translation: “Everyone who was chasing her managed to capture her” or “Everyone who was hunting for her found her”

The word “desperation” can be expressed as an adjective. Alternate translation: “when she was desperate” or “when she was distressed” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 1:4

The city of Zion is spoken of as if it were a woman. In Lamentations, Zion and Jerusalem are names used to refer to the same city. (See: Personification)

The author speaks of the roads that lead to Zion mourning as if they were human beings. (See: Personification)

Alternate translation: “the feasts that God told them to celebrate”

The word “her” refers to Zion. Alternate translation: “All of Zion’s gates are empty” (See: Personification)

Here the people of Zion being distressed are spoken of as if they were a woman in distress. Alternate translation: “Zion’s virgins are sorrowful, and its people despairing” (See: Personification)

Lamentations 1:5

Alternate translation: “Zion’s adversaries rule over it; its enemies prosper”

This speaks of Yahweh punishing the people of Zion for their sins as if they were a woman that Yahweh was punishing. Alternate translation: “Yahweh has afflicted her people because of the sins they have committed” (See: Personification)

The word “captivity” can be expressed as a verb. Alternate translation: “Her enemy captures her little children” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 1:6

The city of Zion is spoken of as if it were a woman. In Lamentations, Zion and Jerusalem are names used to refer to the same city. (See: Personification)

This speaks of everything beautiful in Zion being destroyed as if “beauty” were a person that left Zion. Alternate translation: “Everything that was beautiful about the daughter of Zion is destroyed”

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

This speaks of Zion’s princes having nothing to eat like deer that cannot find grass to eat. Alternate translation: “Her princes are starving, they are like deer that cannot find grass to eat” (See: Simile)

A deer is a medium-sized, grass-eating animal that is often hunted by humans for food. It is also a beautiful animal to look at.

Alternate translation: “they are not strong enough to run away from” or “they are very weak before”

Alternate translation: “the person that is pursuing them”

Lamentations 1:7

Alternate translation: “During the time of her affliction and her homelessness”

Here “Jerusalem” refers to the people who live there. The phrase “call to mind” is an idiom. Alternate translation: “the people of Jerusalem will remember” or “Jerusalem will remember” (See: Metonymy and Idiom)

This refers to their valuable possessions.

“in the past.” This refers to the time before the people of Jerusalem were captured. Alternate translation: “before this disaster happened” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Here the word “hand” refers the control of the enemy army. Alternate translation: “When the adversary conquered and captured her people” (See: Metonymy)

This means that they were glad and mocked Jerusalem when it was destroyed.

This word “destruction” can be expressed as a verb. Alternate translation: “because she was destroyed” or “while they destroyed her” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 1:8

The city of Jerusalem is spoken of as if it were a woman. In Lamentations, Zion and Jerusalem are names used to refer to the same city. (See: Personification)

This speaks of Jerusalem being scorned in the same way that a woman is scorned when she is unclean. According to the law of Moses, a woman was considered unclean during her monthly bleeding. Alternate translation: “Jerusalem’s sins have made her filthy and unclean, and therefore she was unacceptable before God” (See: Simile)

This describes Jerusalem as a woman who sinned, while it also stands for the inhabitants of Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “The people of Jerusalem sinned greatly” (See: Personification and Metonymy)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “has become an object of scorn” (See: Active or Passive)

“her naked.” Jerusalem is described as a woman whose private parts have been exposed to everyone to shame her. (See: Personification)

Lamentations 1:9

According to the l of Moses, a woman was considered unclean during her monthly bleeding. This speaks of Jerusalem being unclean, as if it were a menstruating woman. Alternate translation: “Jerusalem has become unclean, as when a woman is unclean beneath her skirts” (See: Metaphor)

A person who God considers to be spiritually unacceptable or defiled is spoken of as if the person were physically unclean. (See: Metaphor)

The phrase “her fall” is an idiom. Alternate translation: “Her downfall was astonishing” or “Those who saw her destruction were surprised” (See: Idiom)

This could mean that: (1) the author of Lamentations now talks directly to Yahweh or (2) Jerusalem is described as talking to Yahweh like a person. (See: Personification)

Alternate translation: “Pay attention to”

This means that they enemy army has become too large and powerful and has defeated Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “the enemy army has defeated me” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 1:10

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “has taken possession of” or “has stolen” (See: Idiom)

This refers to their valuable possessions.

The word “She” refers to Jerusalem. (See: Personification)

This refers to people from various nations, not the entire population of those nations. Alternate translation: “people from the nations” (See: Synecdoche)

The word “you” refers to Yahweh.

Lamentations 1:11

The word “her” refers to Jerusalem which is described as if it were a woman. Alternate translation: “her inhabitants” or “the people of the city” (See: Personification)

This refers to food in general. Alternate translation: “food” (See: Synecdoche)

This means they traded their wealth and their valuables in exchange for food. Alternate translation: “They have traded their precious treasures in exchange for food” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

This refers to their valuable possessions.

Alternate translation: “to save their lives” or “to restore their strength”

Here Jerusalem speaks directly to Yahweh. (See: Personification)

Lamentations 1:12

This rhetorical question is an accusation aganist the people who walk past Jerusalem and do not care about its well-being. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “All you who pass by should care more for my affliction!” (See: Rhetorical Question)

Here Jerusalem continues to speak, but now to people who pass by instead of to Yahweh. (See: Personification)

These words share similar meanings. Together they invite the reader to understand by seeing that no one has suffered so much. (See: Doublet)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “the sorrow that Yahweh is inflicting upon me” (See: Active or Passive)

Here the word “day” is used as an idiom. Alternate translation: “when he was fiercely angry” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 1:13

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. (See: Personification)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “heaven” (See: Idiom)

This speaks of Yahweh punishing Jerusalem as if Jerusalem were a person that Yahweh were punishing with fire. Alternate translation: “he has sent a painful punishment into my inner being, and it has destroyed me” or “he has sent a destructive punishment into the middle of Jerusalem, and it has destroyed the city” (See: Personification and Metaphor)

Here “fire” represents pain and “bones” represents one’s inner being. Alternate translation: “has sent pain into my bones” or “has sent pain into my inner being” (See: Metonymy)

This speaks of Yahweh punishing Jerusalem as if Jerusalem were a person that Yahweh had set a trap for. This refers to a type of trap usually used to catch an animal. (See: Personification and Metaphor)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “prevented my from walking any further” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 1:14

This speaks of the people of Jerusalem’s sins as if they were a yoke bearing a heavy burden that Yahweh had placed on their necks. Also, If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “My transgressions are like a yoke that he has bound together with his hands and placed upon my neck” (See: Metaphor and Active or Passive)

“given me over into the hands of my enemies.” Here their enemies’ control is represented by their “hands.” Alternate translation: “given my over to the control of my enemies” or “let my enemies defeat me” (See: Metonymy)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “I cannot resist them” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 1:15

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. (See: Personification)

Alternate translation: “strongest soldiers”

Here the enemy army attacking Jerusalem is spoken of as if it were a meeting of people who have come together in order to accuse and condemn someone. Alternate translation: “a great army” (See: Metaphor)

This speaks of the enemy army defeating the soldiers of Jerusalem as if they crushed them. Alternate translation: “to defeat my vigorous men”

This refers to men at the strongest time of their lives.

Here the judgment of God is described as if Jerusalem were grapes on which he had trampled in order to squeeze out the juice. Alternate translation: “It is as though the Lord has trampled upon the virgin daughter of Judah in a winepress” (See: Metaphor)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. The word “virgin” suggests that this woman is pure. (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 1:16

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. In Lamentations, Zion and Jerusalem are names used to refer to the same city. (See: Personification)

This speaks of Jerusalem having no one to comfort her as if she did have a comforter, but that he was far away. The word “comforter” can be expressed as a verb. Alternate translation: “for there is no one to comfort me and restore my life” (See: Metaphor)

Alternate translation: “revives me”

Lamentations 1:17

Here Jerusalem no longer speaks about herself; instead the author describes Jerusalem. He speaks of Zion as if it were a woman that lifts up her hands to ask for help. Alternate translation: “Zion has reached out for help” (See: Personification and Symbolic Action)

Alternate translation: “the people around Jacob” or “the nations surrounding Jacob”

Here “Jacob” refers to his descendants, that is Israel. Alternate translation: “around Jacob’s descendants should be their adversaries” (See: Metonymy)

A person who God considers spiritually unacceptable or defiled is spoken of as if the person were physically unclean. (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 1:18

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. (See: Personification)

This implies that what Yahweh has done, he has done because he is righteous. Alternate translation: “Yahweh has acted out of his righteousness” or “What Yahweh has done is right”

The word “sorrow” can be expressed as a “sad.” Alternate translation: “see how extremely sad I am” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Here all of the people of Jerusalem who were taken into captivity are represented by the “virgins” and the “vigorous men” who were taken. Alternate translation: “Many of my people, including my virgins and vigorous men, have gone into captivity” (See: Synecdoche)

This refers to men at the strongest time of their lives. See how you translated this in Lamentations 1:15.

Lamentations 1:19

Alternate translation: “I called for my friends to help me” or “I called for my allies to help me”

This means that they betrayed him. Alternate translation: “they betrayed me” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Alternate translation: “to save their lives” or “to restore their strength”

Lamentations 1:20

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. (See: Personification)

Jerusalem continues to talk about herself as if she were a woman, but now talks directly to Yahweh. (See: Personification)

The word “churn” means to move around violently, normally in a circular rotation. This does not mean the stomach is literally churning, but describes how the woman, representing Jerusalem, feels. Alternate translation: “my insides ache” or “my stomach hurts” (See: Metaphor)

Here the woman, representing Jerusalem, refers to her “heart” to emphasize her feelings. Alternate translation: “my heart is broken” or “I am extremely sad” (See: Synecdoche)

The “sword” represents the enemy. Alternate translation: “the enemy kills a mother’s children” (See: Metonymy)

This could mean: (1) “inside the house, everyone is dying” or (2) “and inside the house the dead people are kept” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 1:21

In this section Jerusalem is portrayed as a woman speaking about herself. (See: Personification)

“People have heard my groaning.” Jerusalem continues to speak as if she were a woman. (See: Personification)

Here the word “you” refers to Yahweh.

The phrase “the day” is an idiom that refers to a specific event happening. Alternate translation: “You have done what you have promised” (See: Idiom)

This is a request for Jerusalem’s enemies to suffer as the people of Jerusalem have. Alternate translation: “now let them suffer like me” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 1:22

This is a request for Yahweh to judge Jerusalem’s enemies for their wickedness. The phrase “come before you” is an idiom. Alternate translation: “Pay attention to all of the wickedness they have committed” or “Judge them for all of their wickedness” (See: Idiom)

This is a request for Yahweh to punish Jerusalem’s enemies as he punished the people of Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “punish them as you have punished me” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Here the “heart” represents the whole person. Alternate translation: “I am faint” (See: Synecdoche)

Lamentations 2

Lamentations 2 General Notes

Structure and formatting

God has become Judah’s enemy. He is determined to destroy them.

Lamentations 2:1

A new poem begins. The writer of Lamentations uses many different ways to express that the people of Israel have lost God’s favor. (See: Poetry and Parallelism and Metaphor)

This speaks of the Lord’s anger against Jerusalem (Zion) as if it were a dark cloud. This could mean: (1) God is threatening to harm the people of Jerusalem or (2) God has already harmed the people. (See: Metaphor)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. Translate as you did in Lamentations 1:6.(See: Personification)

The phrase “the splendor of Israel” refers to Jerusalem. This passage speaks of the people of Jerusalem losing favor with the Lord as if he threw them out of his presence. The phrase “from heaven to earth” is a great distance used to represent how much they lost favor with the Lord. Alternate translation: “Jerusalem, the splendor of Israel, has lost all favor with the Lord” or “Jerusalem has lost all favor with the Lord” (See: Metaphor and Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

This is a reference to the Lord having considered Jerusalem his “footstool” in the past, which symbolized that he had authority over them and that they were submissive to him. This speaks of the Lord disregarding Jerusalem as his footstool as if he did not remember them. Alternate translation: “He disregarded Jerusalem as his footstool” (See: Metaphor)

This speaks of the Lord not paying attention to Jerusalem as if he did not remember them. Alternate translation: “disregarded” or “paid no attention to” (See: Metaphor)

Here “day” is used as an idiom that refers to a general period of time. Alternate translation: “at the time when he displays his anger” or “at the time he acts in his anger” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 2:2

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

Here “day” is used as an idiom that refers to a general period of time. Alternate translation: “the time of his anger” or “the time of his anger” (See: Idiom)

This speaks of the Lord completely destroying the towns as if he were an animal who ate them. Alternate translation: “completely destroyed” (See: Metaphor)

Here “the towns of Jacob” refers to the towns where his descendants lived. Alternate translation: “all the towns of Israel” (See: Metonymy)

This could mean: (1) the fortified cities throughout Judah or (2) the fortified walls of Jerusalem.

Lamentations 2:3

This speaks of the Lord taking away Israel’s strength as if he were cutting off its horns. The word “horn” refers to an animal horn, not a musical instrument. Alternate translation: “he has taken away all of Israel’s strength” (See: Metaphor)

Here the Lord’s protection is represented by his “right hand.” Alternate translation: “stopped protecting us from our enemies” (See: Metonymy)

This speaks of how the Lord has destroyed Jacob as if a fire has completely burned it. Alternate translation: “He has destroyed Jacob like a blazing fire destroys everything”

Here “Jacob” refers to the places where his descendants lived. Alternate translation: “Israel” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 2:4

A soldier has to bend his bow in order to shoot an arrow from it. This speaks of the Lord preparing to attack Israel as if he were an enemy about to shoot them with a bow and arrow. Alternate translation: “He has prepared to kill us, like an enemy who has made his bow ready to shoot us” (See: Simile)

The “daughter of Zion” is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. The phrase “tent of the daughter of Zion” speaks of Jerusalem as a “tent” emphasizing that it is the home of those who live there. Alternate translation: “who live in Jerusalem” (See: Personification and Metaphor)

This speaks of the Lord’s wrath as if it were a liquid that he were pouring out on the people. His wrath is also compared to a “fire” to emphasize how destructive it is. Alternate translation: “in his anger he has destroyed everything like a blazing fire” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 2:5

This speaks of the Lord completely destroying Israel as if he were animal who ate them. See how you translated this in Lamentations 2:2. Alternate translation: “completely destroyed” (See: Metaphor)

Israel is spoken of as if it were female.

The words “mourning” and “lamentation” can be expressed as verbs. Alternate translation: “He has caused more and more people within the daughter of Judah to mourn and lament” (See: Abstract Nouns)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. Alternate translation: “Judah” (See: Personification)

Lamentations 2:6

This speaks of the tabernacle being easily destroyed, as if it were a garden hut. The Lord caused Israel’s enemies to destroy it. He did not destroy it himself. Alternate translation: “He has caused their enemies to attack his tabernacle as easily as if it were a garden hut” (See: Simile and Metonymy)

a very small building for holding farming tools or for sheltering someone who is guarding a garden

The Lord caused Israel’s enemies to destroy it. He did not destroy it himself. Alternate translation: “He has caused the place of the solemn assembly to be destroyed” or “He has caused their enemies to destroy the place of the solemn assembly” (See: Metonymy)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “caused the people in Zion to forget both solemn assembly and Sabbath” (See: Active or Passive)

Alternate translation: “because he was extremely angry with them”

Lamentations 2:7

Here the enemy’s “hand” refers to the enemy’s control. Alternate translation: “He has allowed the enemy to capture the walls of her palaces” (See: Metonymy)

Here, the word her may refer either to the temple or to Jersualem. Possible translations are: (1) “the walls of the temple” or (2) “the walls of Jerusalem’s palaces.” The word “walls” is a synecdoche for the whole building, and the building is a synecdoche for all of Jerusalem. (See: Synecdoche)

This is an ironic comparison between the happy, noisy festivals of Israel and the loud shouts of victory of the Babylonians. Alternate translation: “They have raised a shout in the house of Yahweh, as the Israelites would during an appointed feast” (See: Irony)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “have shouted victoriously” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 2:8

Yahweh chose to have the wall destroyed and caused Jerusalem’s enemy to destroy it. He did not destroy it himself. (See: Metonymy)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

This speaks of preparing to destroy the wall as if he measured it before he destroyed it, so that he knew how much to destroy. Alternate translation: “It is as though he has measured the wall” (See: Metaphor)

This can be stated without the double negatives. Also, here the Lord is referred to by his “hand.” Alternate translation: “with his hand he has destroyed the wall” or “he has destroyed the wall” (See: Double Negatives and Synecdoche)

The walls and ramparts are spoken of as if they were people who lamented and died. Alternate translation: “Because he has destroyed the ramparts and walls, they are like people who lament and have lost their strength” (See: Personification)

Ancient cities had a main “wall” to keep attackers out, and an outer line of “ramparts” to keep attackers from the wall.

Lamentations 2:10

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

Often people would sit on the ground to show they were mourning. Alternate translation: “sit on the ground, mourning in silence” (See: Symbolic Action)

These are actions of mourning. Alternate translation: “To show their mourning, they have thrown dust on their heads and put on sackcloth” (See: Symbolic Action)

This is an action of mourning. Alternate translation: “have sorrowfully bowed their heads to the ground” (See: Symbolic Action)

Lamentations 2:11

The author shifts from describing Jerusalem to describing his own experience.

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “I have cried until I cannot cry anymore” (See: Idiom)

The word “churn” means to move around violently, normally in a circular rotation. This does not mean the stomach is literally churning, but describes how the author feels. Alternate translation: “my insides ache” or “my stomach hurts” (See: Metaphor)

The author speaks of feeling grief in his inner being as if his inner body parts had fallen out of his body onto the ground. Alternate translation: “my entire inner being is in grief” (See: Metaphor)

This is a poetic name of Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. Alternate translation: “my people” (See: Metonymy and Personification)

Lamentations 2:12

This rhetorical question is used as a request for something to eat. The children are telling their mother that they are hungry. The phrase “grain and wine” represents food and drink. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “Give us something to eat and drink.” (See: Metonymy and Rhetorical Question)

This speaks of the children fainting from hunger and thirst in the same way that a wounded man faints. (See: Simile)

This speaks of the children dying as if their lives were a liquid that was being poured out. Alternate translation: “they slowly die in the arms of their mothers” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 2:13

The author begins to address Jerusalem.

The author uses this rhetorical question to express that he does not know what to say to help Jerusalem. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “There is nothing that I can say … Jerusalem.” (See: Rhetorical Question)

These are poetic names for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. “Zion” is another name for Jerusalem. (See: Personification)

The author uses this rhetorical question to express that he does not know how to give comfort to Jerusalem. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “There is nothing to which I can compare you … Zion.” (See: Rhetorical Question)

This speaks of Jerusalem’s great suffering as if it were as terrible as the sea is great. Alternate translation: “Your suffering is as terrible as the sea is large” (See: Simile)

“Who can restore you?” The author uses this rhetorical question to express that there is no one who can restore Jerusalem to the way it was before. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “No one can heal you.” or “No one can restore you.” (See: Rhetorical Question)

Lamentations 2:14

“They did not tell you about your sins to restore your fortunes.” The word “fortune” refers to a person’s wealth and prosperity.

The word “utterances” can be expressed with the verb “spoke.” Alternate translation: “they spoke things to you” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 2:15

These actions are used to mock and insult others. Alternate translation: “mock you by clapping their hands … hiss and shake their heads” (See: Symbolic Action)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

This rhetorical question is used to express sarcasm. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “This city that they called ‘The Perfection of Beauty,’ ‘The Joy for All of Earth,’ is not so beautiful or joyful anymore!” (See: Rhetorical Question)

Alternate translation: “Perfectly Beautiful”

Lamentations 2:16

This action shows a person’s anger and that they are mocking others. (See: Symbolic Action)

Here the people speak of destroying Jerusalem as if they were an animal swallowing its food. Alternate translation: “We have completely destroyed Jerusalem” (See: Metaphor)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “We have greatly desired to see it happen” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 2:17

Alternate translation: “He has destroyed”

This means that the enemy rejoiced because they defeated them. Alternate translation: “to rejoice over defeating you”

Here horn (that is, an animal horn) represents strength. Alternate translation: “he has increased the power of your enemies” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 2:18

Here the word heart represents the whole person emphasizing one’s innermost being. Possible meanings of who cried out are: (1) the people of Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “The people of Jerusalem shouted to the Lord from their innermost being” or (2) the walls are being personified. Alternate translation: “You walls, cry out to the Lord from your innermost being” (See: Synecdoche and Personification)

The writer speaks to the walls of Jerusalem. He wants the people of Jerusalem to do what he is telling the walls to do. Some translations take this whole section to be spoken to the “walls,” though this can be written with the first phrase “walls of the daughter of Zion!” spoken to the “walls,” and the rest of the section spoken directly to the people. (See: Apostrophe)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. (See: Personification)

This speaks of the people crying so much that their tears would flow like a river. Alternate translation: “Cry many, many tears” (See: Metaphor)

These two opposite times of day refer to all the time. Alternate translation: “all of the time” (See: Merism)

Alternate translation: “Do not allow yourself and your eyes to rest from crying”

Lamentations 2:19

The writer continues speaking to the walls of Jerusalem. He wants the people of Jerusalem to do what he is telling the walls to do. Some translations take this whole section to be spoken to the “walls,” though this can be written with the first phrase “walls of the daughter of Zion!” spoken to the “walls,” and the rest of the section spoken directly to the people. (See: Apostrophe)

“many times during the night.” This refers to every time a watchman came on duty.

The phrase “pour out your heart like water” is an idiom. Here the Lord is represented by his “face” to emphasize his presence. Alternate translation: “Tell the Lord how you feel in your inner being” (See: Idiom)

This was an action often performed while praying. Alternate translation: “Lift up your hands to him in prayer” (See: Symbolic Action)

This means for them to request that the Lord save their children. Alternate translation: “to save the lives of your children” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

The word “every” here is an exaggeration for “many.” Alternate translation: “where the streets come together” or “by the roads” (See: Hyperbole)

Lamentations 2:20

This rhetorical question is asked to emphasize that it is not right for women to eat their children. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “Woman should not eat their own children … for!” (See: Rhetorical Question)

This speaks of children having come from their mother as if they were fruit that came from her womb. Alternate translation: “their children that they have given birth to” or “their own children” (See: Metaphor)

This rhetorical question is used to emphasize that the prophets and priests should not be killed. If your readers would misunderstand this question, you can express it as a statement. Alternate translation: “The prophets and priests should not be slaughtered in the sanctuary of the Lord!” (See: Rhetorical Question)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “Should our enemies slaughter priests and prophets” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 2:21

It is implied here that this refers to dead people. Alternate translation: “The corpses of both the young and the old lie on the dust” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

These phrases refer to people. These two opposites are used to refer to all ages of people. Alternate translation: “Both young people and old people” or “People of all ages” (See: Nominal Adjectives and Merism)

Here the “sword” refers to their enemies. This is a euphemism that means that they were murdered by their enemies. Alternate translation: “My young women and my young men have been murdered by their enemies” or “My enemies have murdered my young women and my young men” (See: Euphemism)

This speaks of Yahweh allowing the poeple to be slaughtered as if he killed them himself. Alternate translation: “you allowed them to be slaughtered” or “you allowed this to happen” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 2:22

“as if they were coming to a feast.” This speaks of how Yahweh summoned his enemies as if he were inviting them to a feast. (See: Simile)

Here the people the author fears are referred to as his “terrors.” Alternate translation: “the attackers I was afraid of” (See: Metonymy)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “to attack from every direction” (See: Idiom)

Here “day” is used as an idiom that refers to a general period of time. Alternate translation: “at the time when Yahweh acted in his anger” or “during the time that Yahweh displayed his anger” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 3

Lamentations 3 General Notes

Special concepts in this chapter

Troubles

Here the author speaks of the suffering experienced by the people of Jerusalem during the Babylonian siege and after the city’s fall. He speaks of these sufferings as if they had been directed against him personally, as if God had personally attacked him. However, we should understand the writer’s feelings as having been shared by everyone in the city.

In verse 19, the writer begins to think about the lessons that he and his fellow citizens should learn about God and his anger and his mercy. He also thinks about what it means to repent and to trust in God.

In verse 43, the writer speaks again about the suffering that God has caused to Jerusalem, but here the writer speaks of “we” and “us,” not “I” and “me.” But in verse 48, he begins to speak about how he himself will continually mourn over what has happened.

In verse 52, the writer begins to think about his personal enemies in Jerusalem, those who persecuted him for bringing Yahweh’s messages to the city. He asks for God to show his enemies that he was doing right, and to take revenge on them for their crimes against him.

Lamentations 3:1

A new poem begins. Here the author speaks of the sufferings that his people experienced. He speaks about them as if God had personally attacked only him. However, the writer intends to speak for everyone in the city. (See: Poetry and Parallelism)

Here “has seen” represents has experienced. Alternate translation: “who has experienced misery” or “who has suffered” (See: Metaphor)

Being “under the rod” represents being beaten with a rod. The author speaks of God’s punishment as if God had beaten him with a rod. Alternate translation: “because Yahweh was very angry and has beaten me with a rod” or “because Yahweh was very angry and has punished me severely” (See: Metonymy and Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:2

Alternate translation: “He forced me to go away”

Here “darkness” represents suffering. Alternate translation: “caused me to suffer terribly with no hope, like a person walking in darkness rather than light” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:3

Here “turned his hand against me” represents attacking him. The author speaks of God causing bad things to happen to him as if God had attacked him. Alternate translation: “he has attacked me” or “he has caused many bad things to happen to me, like someone who attacks a person” (See: Metonymy and Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:4

This could mean: (1) these things are a result of being beaten or (2) these are more ways that God punished the man.

Lamentations 3:5

Siege works are ramps that an army builds around a city to enable them to climb over the city walls and invade the city.

This could mean: (1) the author speaks of God causing bad things to happen to him as if he were a city and God was an enemy that built up siege works against him. Alternate translation: “God attacked me like an enemy army that sets up siege works around a city” or (2) the author speaks of God causing the enemy army to attack Jerusalem as if God were the enemy. Alternate translation: “God caused the enemy army to build up siege works against me” (See: Metaphor)

This represents God causing him to experience much bitterness and hardship. Alternate translation: “caused me to experience much bitterness and hardship” or “caused me to suffer and have many problems” (See: Metaphor)

Here “bitterness” represents suffering. (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:6

Here “dark places” is a metaphor for suffering. The author compares the intensity of his suffering to the intensity of the darkness that those who died long ago experience. Alternate translation: “The suffering that he causes me is intense like the darkness of the grave” or “He makes me suffer terribly, as if I were in the darkness of those who died long ago” (See: Metaphor and Simile)

Lamentations 3:7

This represents the continuing suffering. Like a person who cannot escape from prison, the author cannot make his suffering stop. Alternate translation: “My suffering continues. It is as though he has built a wall around me and put heavy chains on me, and I cannot escape” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:8

The author speaks about God refusing to listen to his prayers as though God was shutting his ears so that the author’s prayers could not go into them. Alternate translation: “he refuses to hear my prayer” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 3:9

The author speaks of God causing him to continue to suffer as if God was preventing him from escaping the suffering by blocking his path. Alternate translation: “It is as though he blocked my path” (See: Metaphor)

“a wall of cut stones.” People would cut stones into regular shapes that could fit together well in order to build a strong wall.

Crooked paths do not lead people to where they want to go. Here they represent unsuccessful ways of escaping suffering. Alternate translation: “it is as though he has made my paths crooked” or “I have tried to make the suffering stop, but God has prevented me, like one who prevents another from escaping by making his paths crooked” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:10

The author speaks of God being ready to cause him to suffer more, as if God were a wild animal waiting to attack him. (See: Simile)

Lamentations 3:11

This could mean: (1) “he dragged me off the path” or (2) “he caused my path to turn in the wrong direction”

Alternate translation: “he has made me hopeless” or “he has not allowed me to have any help”

Lamentations 3:12

God is often spoken of as if he were a warrior.

A soldier has to bend his bow in order to shoot an arrow from it. The author speaks of God deciding to cause him trouble as if God were a warrior ready to shoot him with an arrow. See how you translated this in Lamentations 2:4. Alternate translation: “It was as if God made his bow ready to shoot”

Lamentations 3:13

The author speaks of the deep grief he feels as if God had shot his kidneys with an arrow. Alternate translation: “My grief is great. It is as if he pierced my kidneys with the arrows of his quiver” (See: Metaphor)

The kidneys are abdominal organs that move urine into the bladder. They are a metaphor for a person’s emotions. Alternate translation: “deep into my body” or “my heart” (See: Metaphor)

a bag worn on the back in which to store arrows

Lamentations 3:14

The word “all” is a generalization, meaning “most.” Alternate translation: “a laughingstock to most of my people” or “someone whom all my people mock” (See: Hyperbole)

someone whom many people mock

Lamentations 3:15

Here “bitterness” represents suffering. It is referred to as if it were something that could fill the speaker. Alternate translation: “He has caused me to suffer very much” (See: Metaphor)

Wormwood is the bitter juice from the leaves and flowers of a certain plant. Drinking that bitter juice represents suffering. Alternate translation: “it is as though he forced me to drink something very bitter” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:16

This could mean: (1) the author speaks of God humiliating him as if God had forced him to chew gravel. Alternate translation: “He has humiliated me, like someone who forces another to chew gravel” or (2) the author speaks of God humiliating him as if God had pushed his face down into the gravel on the ground. Alternate translation: “He has humiliated me, like someone who pushes another man’s face down into the gravel” (See: Metaphor)

The author speaks of God humiliating him as if God had pushed him down into the ashes of a fire on the ground. (See: Metaphor)

make oneself as small as possible because of fear of something one cannot fight against

Lamentations 3:17

This could mean: (1) the author’s experiences are not peaceful. Alternate translation: “I have no peace in my life” or (2) the author does not feel peace. Alternate translation: “I feel no peace in my soul”

Lamentations 3:18

The author speaks as if his ability to endure more suffering and his hope that Yahweh will help him were living beings that have died. Alternate translation: “I cannot endure anymore suffering and I can no longer hope that Yahweh will help me” (See: Personification)

Some versions translate this as “glory” or “splendor.”

Lamentations 3:19

In verses 19 to 42, the writer thinks about the lessons that he and his fellow citizens should learn about God and his anger and mercy.

Wormwood is a plant that gives a liquid which is very bitter to drink. Together “wormwood” and “bitterness” represent severe suffering. (See: Doublet and Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:20

Alternate translation: “I am depressed” or “I am discouraged”

Lamentations 3:21

This means to intentionally think about something. The word “this” refers to something that the author will start to speak about in the next verse. Alternate translation: “But I choose to think about this” or “But I remember this”

Alternate translation: “I hope”

Lamentations 3:22

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word steadfast love, you could express the same idea with the phrase “love faithfully.” Alternate translation: “Yahweh never stops loving his people faithfully” (See: Abstract Nouns)

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word compassions, you could express the same idea with a verbal form such as “care.” Alternate translation: “he never stops caring for those who suffer” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 3:23

The word “they” refers to God’s steadfast love and compassions. Their being new represents God continuing to act according to them. Alternate translation: “every morning he treats us again with steadfast love and compassion” (See: Metaphor)

The word “your” refers to Yahweh.

Lamentations 3:24

When God gave each tribe of Israel their land, he called it an inheritance. The author speaks of Yahweh being all he needs as if Yahweh were the inheritance that he had received. Alternate translation: “Because Yahweh is with me, I have everything I need” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:25

Here “good” refers to kindness. Alternate translation: “Yahweh is kind to those who wait for him” or “Yahweh does good things for those who wait for him”

This could mean: (1) “all those who depend on him” or (2) “the one who waits patiently for him to act.”

Here, seeks him could mean: (1) asking God for help or (2) wanting to know God. (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:27

Here “bear the yoke” represents suffering. If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word his youth, you could express the same idea with another word such as “young.” Alternate translation: “that he suffer while he is young” (See: Metaphor and Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 3:28

The phrase “in silence” refers to not speaking. Here it may refer specifically to not complaining. Alternate translation: “Let him sit alone without speaking” or “Let him sit alone and not complain”

“when the yoke is laid upon him.” Here the yoke represents suffering. Alternate translation: “when he suffers” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:30

The writer speaks of the one who waits for Yahweh (Lamentations 3:25).

The word “him” refers to anyone who is suffering and who waits for Yahweh. Here “offer his cheek” represents allowing someone to strike his cheek. Alternate translation: “Let him allow people to hit him on the face” (See: Metaphor)

The author speaks of a person as if he were a container and reproach were a liquid. Being filled with reproach represents being reproached much. The implication is that he should be patient when this happens. Alternate translation: “let him be insulted much” or “let him be patient when people reproach him” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:32

Alternate translation: “though the Lord causes people to suffer” or “though he afflicts people”

Alternate translation: “he will be compassionate to them”

Lamentations 3:33

Here the heart represents desire or pleasure, and afflicting from the heart represents afflicting with pleasure. Alternate translation: “For it does not make him happy to afflict people” or “He does not take pleasure in afflicting people” (See: Metonymy)

This refers to people in general. Alternate translation: “human beings” or “people” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 3:34

The author wrote in general terms about what is true for all people, but it shows God’s concern for his people, the people of Israel, who were being mistreated by their enemies.

Here “crush underfoot” represents abusing and mistreating people. Alternate translation: “To abuse” or “To mistreat” (See: Metaphor)-

Alternate translation: “If people crush”

Lamentations 3:35

This refers to not allowing a person to have what he deserves. Alternate translation: “to deny a person his rights” or “to keep a person from having what he deserves”

Doing something “in the presence of the Most High” represents doing it while knowing that God sees it. Alternate translation: “knowing that the Most High sees it” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 3:36

Here “deny justice” refers to not making a just decision for a person in a legal concern. Alternate translation: “to judge a person wrongly in court” or “to keep a person who goes to a judge from getting what is right”

Alternate translation: “if they deny justice”

Lamentations 3:37

The author uses this rhetorical question to teach that when someone commands something to happen, it will happen only if God has already decreed that it should happen. Alternate translation: “No one has spoken and it came to pass, unless the Lord decreed it.” or “What someone has commanded to happen has never happened unless the Lord decreed it.” (See: Rhetorical Question)

It can be expressed clearly that this refers to commanding something to happen. Alternate translation: “has commanded that something should happen” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Alternate translation: “what he said happened”

Lamentations 3:38

The author uses this rhetorical question to teach that both calamities and good things happen only because God has commanded them to happen. Alternate translation: “It is only from the mouth of the Most High that both calamities and the good come.” or “It is only because the Most High has commanded it that both calamities and good things happen.” (See: Metonymy and Rhetorical Question)

Here “mouth” represents what God says or commands. Alternate translation: “from the command of the Most High” or “because the Most High has commanded it” (See: Metonymy)

Here “come” represents happening. Also, the nominal adjective “the good” can be stated as “good things.” Alternate translation: “both calamities and good things happen” (See: Metaphor and Nominal Adjectives)

Lamentations 3:39

The author uses these rhetorical questions to teach that people should not complain when God punishes them. Alternate translation: “A person should not complain when God punishes him for his sins.” (See: Rhetorical Question)

This could mean: (1) it is implied that mere people cannot fully understand God’s actions. Alternate translation: “How can a mere person complain” or (2) it is implied that being alive is a gift from God. Alternate translation: “How can a person who is blessed to be alive complain” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 3:40

The writer speaks again about the suffering that God has caused to Jerusalem, but here he speaks of “we” and “us,” not “I” and “me.” In verse 42 the author starts a prayer that he and the people of Israel should pray.

Here “return to Yahweh” represents submitting to him again. Alternate translation: “let us submit to Yahweh again” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:41

Here “lift up our hearts” represents praying sincerely. It was customary for the Israelites to raise their hands when praying to God. Alternate translation: “Let us pray sincerely with lifted hands” or “Let us lift up our hands and pray sincerely” (See: Metaphor and Metonymy)

Lamentations 3:42

The words “transgressed” and “rebelled” share similar meanings. Together they indicate that transgression is the same as rebelling against Yahweh. (See: Doublet)

Lamentations 3:43

Here anger is spoken of as if it were a garment that God has put on. Hebrew often spoke of emotions as if they were clothing. Alternate translation: “You have been angry” (See: Metaphor)

Alternate translation: “you have killed many of us”

Here “spared” represents having pity. Alternate translation: “you have not had pity on us” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:44

The prayer that began in Lamentations 3:42 continues.

This represents God refusing to listen to the people’s prayer. Alternate translation: “You refuse to listen to our prayers. It is as though you put a cloud between us and you so that our prayers cannot get to you” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:45

The people of Israel are compared to filthy scum and refuse. This could mean: (1) God has caused the nations to think of his people as worthless. Alternate translation: “You have made the nations think of us as scum and garbage” or (2) God’s forcing his people to live among the nations is like throwing them away as garbage. Alternate translation: “You have thrown us away like filthy garbage among the nations” (See: Simile)

Lamentations 3:47

The abstract nouns “panic,” “pitfall,” “ruin” and “destruction” can be expressed with verbs. Alternate translation: “we are panicking. We are trapped, and we are being ruined and destroyed” or “we are terrified and trapped. We are being completely destroyed” (See: Abstract Nouns)

This refers to falling into a pit. Here it represents being trapped in any way.

Alternate translation: “have happened to us”

These two words share similar meanings and refer to the destruction of Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “total destruction” (See: Doublet)

Lamentations 3:48

The author speaks about himself again.

Here the author speaks of the great amount of his tears as if they were streams. He uses exaggeration to show that he is very sad and has cried much. Alternate translation: “Tears flow from my eyes like water flowing in a river” (See: Metaphor and Hyperbole)

This can stated in active form. Alternate translation: “because enemies have destroyed my people” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 3:49

Both of these phrases means the same thing. The author speaks of his continuing to cry as if his eyes were a person and had no rest from crying. Alternate translation: “without stopping” (See: Doublet and Personification)

Lamentations 3:50

What the author hopes Yahweh will see can be stated clearly. Alternate translation: “until Yahweh looks down from heaven and sees what has happened to my people” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 3:51

The phrase “My eyes” represents what he sees. Alternate translation: “What I see causes me to grieve” (See: Metonymy)

It can be stated clearly that the “daughters of my city” are suffering. Alternate translation: “because the daughters of my city are suffering” or “because I see the daughters of my city suffering” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

This could mean: (1) the women of Jerusalem or (2) all the inhabitants of Jerusalem. (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 3:52

The author speaks of people looking for him in order to kill him as if he were an animal that they were hunting. If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “My enemies have looked for me in order to kill me like people who hunt for a bird” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:53

Alternate translation: “They threw me into a pit” or “They dropped me into a well”

This could mean: (1) “threw stones down on me” or (2) “covered the pit with a stone”

Lamentations 3:54

Alternate translation: “the level of the water in the pit rose up over my head”

Being “cut off” often represents being killed. Here it represents dying very soon. Alternate translation: “I am about to die” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:55

God’s name represents his character, and here, “called on your name” represents trusting God’s character and calling on him for help. Alternate translation: “I called to you for help” (See: Metonymy)

This could mean: (1) this refers to the pit that author had been thrown into. Alternate translation: “from the bottom of the pit” or (2) the author was afraid that he would die soon, so he spoke as if he were in the place of the dead. Alternate translation: “from the pit of the dead”

Lamentations 3:56

Here “voice” represents what he said. Alternate translation: “You heard my words” (See: Metonymy)

Here “close your ear” represents refusing to listen. Alternate translation: “Do not refuse to listen” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 3:57

People often come near to a person they help. Here “came near” represents helping the man. Alternate translation: “you helped me” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 3:58

The author speaks of God keeping him from being killed by his enemies as if God had defended him in court as a lawyer defends someone, and kept him from being killed. Alternate translation: “you saved my life from my enemies. It is as though you defended me in court” (See: Metaphor)

Here “defended my case” represents arguing for him. Alternate translation: “you argued my case for me” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 3:59

Here God is no longer pictured as a lawyer, but as the judge. It can be stated clearly that he wanted God to judge in his favor. Alternate translation: “make a decision about me, and show my enemies that I am right” (See: Metaphor and Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 3:61

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word scorn, you could express the same idea with the verbs “taunt” or “mock.” It can be stated clearly that the plans were to harm him. Alternate translation: “You heard how they have taunted me … and all they plan to do to me” or “You have heard them mock me … and plan ways to harm me” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 3:62

The author speaks of his enemies accusing him all day as if their accusations were soldiers that come to attack him all day. Alternate translation: “My enemies speak against me and accuse me through the whole day” (See: Metaphor)

Here the lips represent what his enemies say. Alternate translation: “The words … of my enemies” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 3:63

These two actions together represent everything the people do. Alternate translation: “everything they do” (See: Merism)

Lamentations 3:64

Here “Pay back to them” represents punishing them. What they have done can be stated clearly. Alternate translation: “Punish them, Yahweh, according to what they have done” or “Yahweh, they have made me suffer, so please make them suffer” (See: Metaphor and Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 3:65

Here the “heart” is a metonym that represents their attitudes and emotions, and being “shameless” means not feeling ashamed of their sins even though they should. Their not being ashamed would give even more reason for God to punish them. Alternate translation: “You will let them feel no shame for their sins” (See: Metonymy)

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word condemnation, you could express the same idea with the verbs “condemn” or “curse.” Alternate translation: “Condemn them” or “Curse them” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Lamentations 3:66

Here “from under the heavens” represents everywhere on earth. Alternate translation: “wherever they are on earth” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 4

Lamentations 4 General Notes

Structure and formatting

The story of Judah being destroyed continues in this chapter. Famine destroyed the rulers and the priests. (See: priest, priesthood)

Lamentations 4:1

A new poem begins. See Poetry and Parallelism and Metaphor.

The people of Jerusalem are spoken of as if they were gold that is no longer shiny, and therefore no longer valuable. Alternate translation: “The people of Jerusalem are like gold that is no longer shiny. They are like pure gold that is no longer beautiful” (See: Metaphor)

This is an exclamation that shows the author’s sadness that this has happened. (See: Exclamations)

This may refer to the temple being destroyed and its stones scattered throughout the city. It may also be a metaphor for the people being scattered. (See: Metaphor)

Alternate translation: “wherever the streets come together” or “by all the roads”

Lamentations 4:2

Here people of a city are spoken of as if they were the sons of the city. This could mean: (1) this refers to only the young men of Jerusalem or (2) this refers to all the people of Jerusalem. (See: Metaphor)

The author speaks of the precious sons of Zion as if they were considered to be inexpensive clay jars. Alternate translation: “people consider them to be as worthless as the clay jars that potters make” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 4:3

Because of the lack of food in the city, the people of Jerusalem do not give their children all they need.

This means that mother jackals feed their baby jackals.

fierce wild dogs

The people in Jerusalem are compared to ostriches because they are cruel to their children. (See: Simile)

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. See how you translated this in Lamentations 2:11. Alternate translation: “my people have” (See: Metonymy and Personification)

large birds that abandon some of their eggs

Lamentations 4:4

Alternate translation: “Nursing babies are so thirsty that their tongues stick to the top of their mouths”

Lamentations 4:5

Alternate translation: “eat much”

These people no longer have homes, so they live outside along the streets.

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “those who grew up wearing scarlet clothing” or “those who wore scarlet clothing when they were growing up” (See: Active or Passive)

Here this phrase is a metonym for luxurious, expensive, and comfortable clothing, at least some of which was probably scarlet. Alternate translation: “luxurious clothing” (See: Metonymy)

This is because they no longer have homes and soft beds.

Lamentations 4:6

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word punishment, you could express the same idea with the verb “punish.” Alternate translation: “The daughter of my people has been punished more severely than Sodom was punished”

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. See how you translated this in Lamentations 2:11. Alternate translation: “my people” (See: Metonymy and Personification)

The word “which” refers to Sodom. If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “which God destroyed in a moment” (See: Active or Passive)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “no one wrung their hands for her” (See: Active or Passive)

People sometimes rub and twist their hands when they are worried and cannot fix something, so wringing the hands here represents worrying. The word “her” refers to Jerusalem, which was called “the daughter of my people.” Alternate translation: “no one was worried about her” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 4:7

This could mean: (1) Jerusalem’s leaders were beautiful to look at because they were physically healthy or (2) the leaders were morally pure as new snow and milk are pure white. (See: Metaphor)

Alternate translation: “Jerusalem’s leaders”

“their bodies were redder than coral.” This implies that they were healthy. Alternate translation: “their bodies were healthy and red” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

a rock-hard red substance that comes from the ocean and was used for making decorations

a costly blue stone used in jewelry

Lamentations 4:8

This may be because: (1) the sun has darkened the leaders’ skin or (2) the soot from the fires that burned Jerusalem has covered their faces.

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “no one can recognize them” (See: Active or Passive)

This implies that there was not much muscle or fat under the skin. (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Their dry skin is compared to dry wood. (See: Simile)

Lamentations 4:9

Here the “sword” represents an enemy’s attack. It can be stated in active form. Alternate translation: “Those whom enemy soldiers have killed” (See: Metonymy and Active or Passive)

Here “hunger” represents starvation. If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “those who starved to death” (See: Metonymyand Active or Passive)

Alternate translation: “who became extremely thin and weak”

Here “harvest from the field” is a metonym that represents food to eat. Lack of food is spoken of here as if it were a sword that pierces people. Alternate translation: “who died because there was not enough food to eat” (See: Metonymy and Metaphor and Active or Passive)

Lamentations 4:10

Here the women are represented by their “hands.” Because they were so hungry, women who had been compassionate in the past were no longer compassionate toward their children; instead they boiled them for food. Alternate translation: “Compassionate women” or “Women who had been compassionate in the past” (See: Synecdoche)

Alternate translation: “their children became the women’s food”

This is a poetic name for Jerusalem, which is spoken of here as if it were a woman. See how you translated this in Lamentations 2:11. Alternate translation: “my people were” (See: Metonymy and Personification)

Lamentations 4:11

Yahweh was very angry, and he did everything he wanted to do to show that he was angry. (See: Parallelism)

God’s punishing his people is spoken of as if his anger were a burning hot liquid that he poured out on them. Alternate translation: “because of his fierce anger, he punished his people” or “in fierce anger he responded to his people” (See: Metaphor)

This represents God causing Israel’s enemies to start a fire in Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “He caused a fire to start in Zion” (See: Metonymy)

Here “her foundations” represents the whole city, even the part of the city that would be ruined last. Alternate translation: “that burned down the city, even its foundations” (See: Synecdoche)

Lamentations 4:12

Alternate translation: “The kings of the earth and the rest of the inhabitants of the world did not believe”

These two words mean basically the same thing and emphasize that these are people who desired to harm Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “any kind of enemy” or “any of Jerusalem’s enemies” (See: Doublet)

Lamentations 4:13

These two lines share similar meanings and emphasize that these spiritual leaders were largely responsible for the fall of Jerusalem. Alternate translation: “the terrible sins of her prophets and priests” (See: Parallelism)

Both the priests and the prophets were guilty of murder. Here “shed the blood” represents murder. Alternate translation: “who have murdered the righteous” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 4:14

The priests and prophets are spoken of as if they were blind because they wandered through the streets, not knowing where to go. Alternate translation: “They wandered through the streets like blind men” (See: Metaphor)

Here “defiled” represents being unacceptable to God. Because the priests and prophets murdered people, they were ritually unclean, unable to worship God or be with ordinary people. (See: Metaphor)

“defiled by the blood that they shed.” This could mean: (1) the blood was on their clothes or (2) “blood” is a metonym for murder. (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 4:15

Alternate translation: “Go away! You are unclean”

Alternate translation: “Go away! Go away! Do not touch us”

Lamentations 4:16

Alternate translation: “scattered the prophets and priests”

Here “watch over them” represents being concerned about them and helping them. Alternate translation: “he does not care about them anymore” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 4:17

Their eyes failing represents their seeking and not being able to find what they were looking for. These two phrases together emphasize that they were trying hard to find help. Alternate translation: “We continued looking, but we could not find anyone to help us” (See: Metonymy)

If your language does not use an abstract noun for the idea behind the word help, you could express the same idea with a verbal form. Alternate translation: “for people to help us” (See: Abstract Nouns)

without succeeding

Here “watched” represents hoping. It can be stated clearly that they were hoping that a nation would come and rescue them. Alternate translation: “we hoped for a nation to come and rescue us, but it could not rescue us” (See: Metaphor and Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 4:18

Here “our steps” represents where they went. Alternate translation: “Our enemies followed us everywhere we went” (See: Metonymy)

Here “near” is a metaphor for “soon.” Alternate translation: “Our end would be soon” or “Our enemies would soon destroy us” (See: Metaphor)

This could mean: (1) “Our end” refers to the end of living in their own city because their enemies would destroy the city and capture them. Alternate translation: “Our destruction” or “Our capture” or (2) “Our end” refers to the end of their lives. Alternate translation: “Our death” or “The time for us to die” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Being numbered represents being so few that they could be easily counted. Alternate translation: “we had very little time” (See: Metaphor)

The phrase “had come” means that what they had expected was now happening. Alternate translation: “it was now the end for us” or “our enemies were attacking us” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 4:19

The author compares the speed of their pursuers to the speed of eagles flying. Eagles fly very quickly to catch other animals. Alternate translation: “Those who were chasing us were faster than eagles” (See: Simile)

Alternate translation: “waited to attack us”

Lamentations 4:20

Here “pits” refers to the enemies’ plans to capture him. If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “he was the one whom our enemies captured by their plans” or “our enemies made plans to capture our king, and they did capture him” (See: Metaphor and Active or Passive)

This phrase with the quote following it gives us more information about the king. The quote shows what the people had hoped the king would do for them before he was trapped. It can be expressed in active form. Alternate translation: “even though we had said about him” (See: Distinguishing Versus Informing or Reminding and Active or Passive)

Here “his shadow” represents him protecting them. Alternate translation: “Under his protection we will live among the nations” or “Though we may have to live in other nations, he will protect us” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 4:21

“Rejoice” and “be glad” mean basically the same thing and emphasize the intensity of gladness. The writer uses these words to mock the people. He knew that the people of Edom would be glad that Jerusalem is being destroyed. Alternate translation: “Be very glad” (See: Doublet and Irony)

The people of the land of Edom are spoken of as if they were a woman. They were Israel’s enemy. (See: Personification)

The cup is a metonym for the wine in it. The wine is a metaphor for punishment. Alternate translation: “But Yahweh will also punish you” (See: Metaphor and Metonymy)

Lamentations 4:22

The people of Jerusalem are spoken of as if they were a woman. (See: Personification)\

“your punishment will end.” The abstract noun punishment can be expressed with the verb “punish.” Alternate translation: “Yahweh will stop punishing you” (See: Abstract Nouns)

Alternate translation: “Yahweh will not make your time in exile longer” or “Yahweh will not make you stay in exile longer”

Here the sins not being known by others are spoken of as if they are under a cover. Removing the cover represents letting other people know about them. Alternate translation: “he will expose your sins” or “he will cause other people to know how you have sinned” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 5

Lamentations 5 General Notes

Structure and formatting

Judah was destroyed for her sin. As slaves, life was very hard. The author wondered if God would be angry forever. (See: sin, sinful, sinner, sinning and eternity, everlasting, eternal, forever)

Lamentations 5:1

A new poem begins. See Poetry and Parallelism and Metaphor.

“Remember” here is an idiom. Alternate translation: “Yahweh, think about what has happened to us” (See: Idiom)

Alternate translation: “look at the shameful state we are in”

Lamentations 5:2

The idea of things being turned over to others can be expressed with an active form. Since it is also understood in the second part of the sentence, those words can be repeated there. Alternate translation: “You have turned our inheritance over to strangers; you have turned our houses over to strangers” or “You have allowed strangers to take possession of our inheritance; you have allowed foreigners to take possession of our houses” (See: Active or Passive and Ellipsis)

Lamentations 5:3

The people of Jerusalem have no one to protect them because the men have either died in battle or have gone into exile. This speaks of the people not having their fathers and husbands present as if they had actually become orphans and widows. (See: Metaphor and Simile)

These two phrases have the same meaning and emphasize that the people no longer have their fathers. Alternate translation: “orphans who have no fathers” (See: Parallelism)

Lamentations 5:4

This means that their enemies are making them pay money to have the water and wood that they once used for free. Alternate translation: “We have to pay silver to our enemies in order to drink our own water … our own wood” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “our enemies sell us our own wood” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 5:5

“Our enemies who are chasing after us.” This refers to the Babylonian army.

This speaks of being able to rest as if “rest” were an object that could be found. Alternate translation: “we are unable to rest” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 5:6

This phrase “given ourselves” is an idiom. Alternate translation: “We have made a treaty with Egypt and with Assyria so that we would have food to eat” or “We have surrendered to Egypt and to Assyria to have enough food to remain alive” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 5:7

This refers to them being dead. Alternate translation: “they have died” (See: Euphemism)

Here “iniquities” represents the punishment received because of their ancestors’ sins. Alternate translation: “we bear the punishment for their sins” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 5:8

This could mean: (1) “Now the people who rule over us are themselves slaves to their own masters in Babylon” or (2) “People who used to be slaves in Babylon now rule over us.” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Here the word “hand” refers to control. Alternate translation: “to rescue us from their control” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 5:9

Here “bread” refers to food in general. Alternate translation: “food” (See: Metonymy)

Here robbers with swords are represented by their “swords.” Alternate translation: “because there are robbers in the wilderness who kill others with swords” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 5:10

This speaks of the peoples’ bodies being hot and feverish as if their skin was as hot as an oven. The people have fever because of their hunger. Alternate translation: “Our skin has become hot like an oven, and we have a very high fever because we are extremely hungry” (See: Simile)

Lamentations 5:11

These two phrases have similar meaning and emphasize that the women are being violated. The words “are raped” are understood in the second part of this sentence and can be repeated. Alternate translation: “Women are raped in Zion, and virgins are raped in the cities of Judah” (See: Parallelism and Ellipsis)

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “Our enemies have raped the women … and the virgins” or “Our enemies have violated the women … and the virgins” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 5:12

This could mean: (1) the word “their” refers to their enemies. Alternate translation: “With their own hands, they hung princes” or (2) they tied each prince’s hands together with one end of a rope and tied the other end so the prince’s feet could not touch the ground.

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “they have shown no honor to the elders” (See: Active or Passive)

Lamentations 5:13

If your language does not use the passive form in this way, you can state this in active form or in another way that is natural in your language. Alternate translation: “They force young men” (See: Active or Passive)

The boys are forced to carry the loads of wood. Alternate translation: “boys stagger because they are forced to carry heavy loads of wood” or “they force the boys to carry heavy loads of wood which make them stagger” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 5:14

This is where the elders would give legal advice, but also where people would meet socially.

Playing music was part of the social life at the city gate. This speaks of the men no longer playing their music as if the act of playing music were a place that they left. Alternate translation: “the young men have stopped playing their music” (See: Metaphor)

Lamentations 5:15

Here the word “heart” refers to the whole person and emphasizes their emotions. Alternate translation: “Our joy” (See: Synecdoche)

Lamentations 5:16

This could mean: (1) “We no longer wear flowers on our heads for celebrations” or (2) The “crown” represents their king and their “head” represents a place of authority over the people. Alternate translation: “We no longer have a king” (See: Metonymy)

Lamentations 5:17

The “heart” represents a person’s emotions. This speaks of a person being discouraged as if their emotions were sick. Alternate translation: “Because of this we are discouraged” (See: Metonymy and Metaphor)

This means that they have a hard time seeing because they are crying. Alternate translation: “and we can hardly see because our eyes are full of tears” (See: Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information)

Lamentations 5:18

Here “Mount Zion” refers to Jerusalem. The phrase “lies desolate” means that no one lives there.

These are fierce wild dogs. See how you translated this in Lamentations 4:3.

Lamentations 5:19

Here sitting on the throne represents ruling as king. Alternate translation: “rule as king” (See: Metonymy)

This is an idiom. Alternate translation: “always” (See: Idiom)

Lamentations 5:20

The author uses these rhetorical questions to express his feelings that Yahweh has forgotten them. These questions can be written as a statement. Alternate translation: “It is as though you will forget us forever or not come back to us for a very long time!” (See: Rhetorical Question)

Here this idiom refers to the duration of God’s life. Since God lives forever, it can also be translated as “forever.” Perhaps the writer was uing hyperbole and exaggerating the length of time he believed that God was forsaking them. Alternate translation: “for as long as you live” or “forever” (See: Idiom and Hyperbole)

Lamentations 5:21

Alternate translation: “Bring us back to yourself”

Lamentations 5:22

This could mean: (1) that the writer is afraid that Yahweh might be too angry to restore them or (2) that he is saying that Yahweh is too angry to restore them.

This speaks of Yahweh being very angry as if his anger cannot be measured. This is an exaggeration. Alternate translation: “are extremely angry with us” (See: Hypothetical Situations)